no man who has been given the freedom of the faith is likely to fall into those hole-and-corner extravagances in which later degenerate franciscans, or rather fraticelli, sought to concentrate entirely on st. francis as a second christ, the creator of a new gospel. in fact any such notion makes nonsense of every motive in the man's life; for no man would reverently magnify what he was meant to rival, or only profess to follow what he existed to supplant. on the contrary, as will appear later, this little study would rather specially insist that it was really the papal sagacity that saved the great franciscan movement for the whole world and the universal church, and prevented it from petering out as that sort of stale and second-rate sect that is called a new religion. everything that is written here must be understood not only as distinct from but diametrically opposed to the idolatry of the fraticelli. the difference between christ and st. francis was the difference between the creator and the creature; {134}and certainly no creature was ever so conscious of that colossal contrast as st. francis himself. but subject to this understanding, it is perfectly true and it is vitally important that christ was the pattern on which st. francis sought to fashion himself; and that at many points their human and historical lives were even curiously coincident; and above all, that compared to most of us at least st. francis is a most sublime approximation to his master, and, even in being an intermediary and a reflection, is a splendid and yet a merciful mirror of christ. and this truth suggests another, which i think has hardly been noticed; but which happens to be a highly forcible argument for the authority of christ being continuous in the catholic church.

cardinal newman wrote in his liveliest controversial work a sentence that might be a model of what we mean by saying that his creed tends to lucidity and logical courage. in speaking of the ease with which truth may be made to look like its own shadow or sham, he said, "and if antichrist is like christ, christ i suppose is like antichrist." mere religious sentiment might well be shocked at the end of the sentence; but nobody could object to it except the logician who said that cæsar and pompey were very much alike, especially pompey. it may give a much milder shock if i say here, what most of {135}us have forgotten, that if st. francis was like christ, christ was to that extent like st. francis. and my present point is that it is really very enlightening to realise that christ was like st. francis. what i mean is this; that if men find certain riddles and hard sayings in the story of galilee, and if they find the answers to those riddles in the story of assisi, it really does show that a secret has been handed down in one religious tradition and no other. it shows that the casket that was locked in palestine can be unlocked in umbria; for the church is the keeper of the keys.

now in truth while it has always seemed natural to explain st. francis in the light of christ, it has not occurred to many people to explain christ in the light of st. francis. perhaps the word "light" is not here the proper metaphor; but the same truth is admitted in the accepted metaphor of the mirror. st. francis is the mirror of christ rather as the moon is the mirror of the sun. the moon is much smaller than the sun, but it is also much nearer to us; and being less vivid it is more visible. exactly in the same sense st. francis is nearer to us, and being a mere man like ourselves is in that sense more imaginable. being necessarily less of a mystery, he does not, for us, so much open his mouth in mysteries. yet as a matter of fact, many minor things that seem mysteries in the {136}mouth of christ would seem merely characteristic paradoxes in the mouth of st. francis. it seems natural to re-read the more remote incidents with the help of the more recent ones. it is a truism to say that christ lived before christianity; and it follows that as an historical figure he is a figure in heathen history. i mean that the medium in which he moved was not the medium of christendom but of the old pagan empire; and from that alone, not to mention the distance of time, it follows that his circumstances are more alien to us than those of an italian monk such as we might meet even to-day. i suppose the most authoritative commentary can hardly be certain of the current or conventional weight of all his words or phrases; of which of them would then have seemed a common allusion and which a strange fancy. this archaic setting has left many of the sayings standing like hieroglyphics and subject to many and peculiar individual interpretations. yet it is true of almost any of them that if we simply translate them into the umbrian dialect of the first franciscans, they would seem like any other part of the franciscan story; doubtless in one sense fantastic, but quite familiar. all sorts of critical controversies have revolved round the passage which bids men consider the lilies of the field and copy them in taking no thought for the morrow. the sceptic has alternated {137}between telling us to be true christians and do it, and explaining that it is impossible to do. when he is a communist as well as an atheist, he is generally doubtful whether to blame us for preaching what is impracticable or for not instantly putting it into practice. i am not going to discuss here the point of ethics and economics; i merely remark that even those who are puzzled at the saying of christ would hardly pause in accepting it as a saying of st. francis. nobody would be surprised to find that he had said, "i beseech you, little brothers, that you be as wise as brother daisy and brother dandelion; for never do they lie awake thinking of to-morrow, yet they have gold crowns like kings and emperors or like charlemagne in all his glory." even more bitterness and bewilderment has arisen about the command to turn the other cheek and to give the coat to the robber who has taken the cloak. it is widely held to imply the wickedness of war among nations; about which, in itself, not a word seems to have been said. taken thus literally and universally, it much more clearly implies the wickedness of all law and government. yet there are many prosperous peacemakers who are much more shocked at the idea of using the brute force of soldiers against a powerful foreigner than they are at using the brute force of policemen against a poor fellow-citizen. here again i {138}am content to point out that the paradox becomes perfectly human and probable if addressed by francis to franciscans. nobody would be surprised to read that brother juniper did then run after the thief that had stolen his hood, beseeching him to take his gown also; for so st. francis had commanded him. nobody would be surprised if st. francis told a young noble, about to be admitted to his company, that so far from pursuing a brigand to recover his shoes, he ought to pursue him to make him a present of his stockings. we may like or not the atmosphere these things imply; but we know what atmosphere they do imply. we recognise a certain note as natural and clear as the note of a bird; the note of st. francis. there is in it something of gentle mockery of the very idea of possessions; something of a hope of disarming the enemy by generosity; something of a humorous sense of bewildering the worldly with the unexpected; something of the joy of carrying an enthusiastic conviction to a logical extreme. but anyhow we have no difficulty in recognising it, if we have read any of the literature of the little brothers and the movement that began in assisi. it seems reasonable to infer that if it was this spirit that made such strange things possible in umbria, it was the same spirit that made them possible in palestine. if we hear the same unmistakable note and sense the same {139}indescribable savour in two things at such a distance from each other, it seems natural to suppose that the case that is more remote from our experience was like the case that is closer to our experience. as the thing is explicable on the assumption that francis was speaking to franciscans, it is not an irrational explanation to suggest that christ also was speaking to some dedicated band that had much the same function as franciscans. in other words, it seems only natural to hold, as the catholic church has held, that these counsels of perfection were part of a particular vocation to astonish and awaken the world. but in any case it is important to note that when we do find these particular features, with their seemingly fantastic fitness, reappearing after more than a thousand years, we find them produced by the same religious system which claims continuity and authority from the scenes in which they first appeared. any number of philosophies will repeat the platitudes of christianity. but it is the ancient church that can again startle the world with the paradoxes of christianity. ubi petrus ibi franciscus.

but if we understand that it was truly under the inspiration of his divine master that st. francis did these merely quaint or eccentric acts of charity, we must understand that it was under the same inspiration that he did acts of {140}self-denial and austerity. it is clear that these more or less playful parables of the love of men were conceived after a close study of the sermon on the mount. but it is evident that he made an even closer study of the silent sermon on that other mountain; the mountain that was called golgotha. here again he was speaking the strict historical truth, when he said that in fasting or suffering humiliation he was but trying to do something of what christ did; and here again it seems probable that as the same truth appears at the two ends of a chain of tradition, the tradition has preserved the truth. but the import of this fact at the moment affects the next phase in the personal history of the man himself.

for as it becomes clearer that his great communal scheme is an accomplished fact and past the peril of an early collapse, as it becomes evident that there already is such a thing as an order of the friars minor, this more individual and intense ambition of st. francis emerges more and more. so soon as he certainly has followers, he does not compare himself with his followers, towards whom he might appear as a master; he compares himself more and more with his master, towards whom he appears only as a servant. this, it may be said in passing, is one of the moral and even practical conveniences of the ascetical privilege. every other sort of superiority may be superciliousness. {141}but the saint is never supercilious, for he is always by hypothesis in the presence of a superior. the objection to an aristocracy is that it is a priesthood without a god. but in any case the service to which st. francis had committed himself was one which, about this time, he conceived more and more in terms of sacrifice and crucifixion. he was full of the sentiment that he had not suffered enough to be worthy even to be a distant follower of his suffering god. and this passage in his history may really be roughly summarised as the search for martyrdom.

this was the ultimate idea in the remarkable business of his expedition among the saracens in syria. there were indeed other elements in his conception, which are worthy of more intelligent understanding than they have often received. his idea, of course, was to bring the crusades in a double sense to their end; that is, to reach their conclusion and to achieve their purpose. only he wished to do it by conversion and not by conquest; that is, by intellectual and not material means. the modern mind is hard to please; and it generally calls the way of godfrey ferocious and the way of francis fanatical. that is, it calls any moral method unpractical, when it has just called any practical method immoral. but the idea of st. francis was far from being a fanatical or necessarily even an unpractical idea; though perhaps he {142}saw the problem as rather too simple, lacking the learning of his great inheritor raymond lully, who understood more but has been quite as little understood. the way he approached the matter was indeed highly personal and peculiar; but that was true of almost everything he did. it was in one way a simple idea, as most of his ideas were simple ideas. but it was not a silly idea; there was a great deal to be said for it and it might have succeeded. it was, of course, simply the idea that it is better to create christians than to destroy moslems. if islam had been converted, the world would have been immeasurably more united and happy; for one thing, three quarters of the wars of modern history would never have taken place. it was not absurd to suppose that this might be effected, without military force, by missionaries who were also martyrs. the church had conquered europe in that way and may yet conquer asia or africa in that way. but when all this is allowed for, there is still another sense in which st. francis was not thinking of martyrdom as a means to an end, but almost as an end in itself; in the sense that to him the supreme end was to come closer to the example of christ. through all his plunging and restless days ran the refrain: i have not suffered enough; i have not sacrificed enough; i am not yet worthy even of the shadow of the crown of thorns. he wandered about the {143}valleys of the world looking for the hill that has the outline of a skull.

a little while before his final departure for the east a vast and triumphant assembly of the whole order had been held near the portiuncula; and called the assembly of the straw huts, from the manner in which that mighty army encamped in the field. tradition says that it was on this occasion that st. francis met st. dominic for the first and last time. it also says, what is probable enough, that the practical spirit of the spaniard was almost appalled at the devout irresponsibility of the italian, who had assembled such a crowd without organising a commissariat. dominic the spaniard was, like nearly every spaniard, a man with the mind of a soldier. his charity took the practical form of provision and preparation. but, apart from the disputes about faith which such incidents open, he probably did not understand in this case the power of mere popularity produced by mere personality. in all his leaps in the dark, francis had an extraordinary faculty of falling on his feet. the whole countryside came down like a landslide to provide food and drink for this sort of pious picnic. peasants brought waggons of wine and game; great nobles walked about doing the work of footmen. it was a very real victory for the franciscan spirit of a reckless faith not only in god but in {144}man. of course there is much doubt and dispute about the whole story and the whole relation of francis and dominic; and the story of the assembly of the straw huts is told from the franciscan side. but the alleged meeting is worth mentioning, precisely because it was immediately before st. francis set forth on his bloodless crusade that he is said to have met st. dominic, who has been so much criticised for lending himself to a more bloody one. there is no space in this little book to explain how st. francis, as much as st. dominic, would ultimately have defended the defence of christian unity by arms. indeed it would need a large book instead of a little book to develop that point alone from its first principles. for the modern mind is merely a blank about the philosophy of toleration; and the average agnostic of recent times has really had no notion of what he meant by religious liberty and equality. he took his own ethics as self-evident and enforced them; such as decency or the error of the adamite heresy. then he was horribly shocked if he heard of anybody else, moslem or christian, taking his ethics as self-evident and enforcing them; such as reverence or the error of the atheist heresy. and then he wound up by taking all this lop-sided illogical deadlock, of the unconscious meeting the unfamiliar, and called it the liberality of his own mind. medieval men {145}thought that if a social system was founded on a certain idea it must fight for that idea, whether it was as simple as islam or as carefully balanced as catholicism. modern men really think the same thing, as is clear when communists attack their ideas of property. only they do not think it so clearly, because they have not really thought out their idea of property. but while it is probable that st. francis would have reluctantly agreed with st. dominic that war for the truth was right in the last resort, it is certain that st. dominic did enthusiastically agree with st. francis that it was far better to prevail by persuasion and enlightenment if it were possible. st. dominic devoted himself much more to persuading than to persecuting; but there was a difference in the methods simply because there was a difference in the men. about everything st. francis did there was something that was in a good sense childish, and even in a good sense wilful. he threw himself into things abruptly, as if they had just occurred to him. he made a dash for his mediterranean enterprise with something of the air of a schoolboy running away to sea.

in the first act of that attempt he characteristically distinguished himself by becoming the patron saint of stowaways. he never thought of waiting for introductions or bargains or any of the considerable backing that he already had {146}from rich and responsible people. he simply saw a boat and threw himself into it, as he threw himself into everything else. it has all that air of running a race which makes his whole life read like an escapade or even literally an escape. he lay like lumber among the cargo, with one companion whom he had swept with him in his rush; but the voyage was apparently unfortunate and erratic and ended in an enforced return to italy. apparently it was after this first false start that the great re-union took place at the portiuncula, and between this and the final syrian journey there was also an attempt to meet the moslem menace by preaching to the moors in spain. in spain indeed several of the first franciscans had already succeeded gloriously in being martyred. but the great francis still went about stretching out his arms for such torments and desiring that agony in vain. no one would have said more readily than he that he was probably less like christ than those others who had already found their calvary; but the thing remained with him like a secret; the strangest of the sorrows of man.

his later voyage was more successful, so far as arriving at the scene of operations was concerned. he arrived at the headquarters of the crusade which was in front of the besieged city of damietta, and went on in his rapid and {147}solitary fashion to seek the headquarters of the saracens. he succeeded in obtaining an interview with the sultan; and it was at that interview that he evidently offered, and as some say proceeded, to fling himself into the fire as a divine ordeal, defying the moslem religious teachers to do the same. it is quite certain that he would have done so at a moment's notice. indeed throwing himself into the fire was hardly more desperate, in any case, than throwing himself among the weapons and tools of torture of a horde of fanatical mahomedans and asking them to renounce mahomet. it is said further that the mahomedan muftis showed some coldness towards the proposed competition, and that one of them quietly withdrew while it was under discussion; which would also appear credible. but for whatever reason francis evidently returned as freely as he came. there may be something in the story of the individual impression produced on the sultan, which the narrator represents as a sort of secret conversion. there may be something in the suggestion that the holy man was unconsciously protected among half-barbarous orientals by the halo of sanctity that is supposed in such places to surround an idiot. there is probably as much or more in the more generous explanation of that graceful though capricious courtesy and compassion which mingled with wilder things in the stately soldans {148}of the type and tradition of saladin. finally, there is perhaps something in the suggestion that the tale of st. francis might be told as a sort of ironic tragedy and comedy called the man who could not get killed. men liked him too much for himself to let him die for his faith; and the man was received instead of the message. but all these are only converging guesses at a great effort that is hard to judge, because it broke off short like the beginnings of a great bridge that might have united east and west, and remains one of the great might-have-beens of history.

meanwhile the great movement in italy was making giant strides. backed now by papal authority as well as popular enthusiasm, and creating a kind of comradeship among all classes, it had started a riot of reconstruction on all sides of religious and social life; and especially began to express itself in that enthusiasm for building which is the mark of all the resurrections of western europe. there had notably been established at bologna a magnificent mission house of the friars minor; and a vast body of them and their sympathisers surrounded it with a chorus of acclamation. their unanimity had a strange interruption. one man alone in that crowd was seen to turn and suddenly denounce the building as if it had been a babylonian temple; demanding indignantly since when the lady {149}poverty had thus been insulted with the luxury of palaces. it was francis, a wild figure, returned from his eastern crusade; and it was the first and last time that he spoke in wrath to his children.

a word must be said later about this serious division of sentiment and policy, about which many franciscans, and to some extent francis himself, parted company with the more moderate policy which ultimately prevailed. at this point we need only note it as another shadow fallen upon his spirit after his disappointment in the desert; and as in some sense the prelude to the next phase of his career, which is the most isolated and the most mysterious. it is true that everything about this episode seems to be covered with some cloud of dispute, even including its date; some writers putting it much earlier in the narrative than this. but whether or no it was chronologically it was certainly logically the culmination of the story, and may best be indicated here. i say indicated for it must be a matter of little more than indication; the thing being a mystery both in the higher moral and the more trivial historical sense. anyhow the conditions of the affair seem to have been these. francis and a young companion, in the course of their common wandering, came past a great castle all lighted up with the festivities attending a son of the house receiving the honour of knighthood. {150}this aristocratic mansion, which took its name from monte feltro, they entered in their beautiful and casual fashion and began to give their own sort of good news. there were some at least who listened to the saint "as if he had been an angel of god"; among them a gentleman named orlando of chiusi, who had great lands in tuscany, and who proceeded to do st. francis a singular and somewhat picturesque act of courtesy. he gave him a mountain; a thing somewhat unique among the gifts of the world. presumably the franciscan rule which forbade a man to accept money had made no detailed provision about accepting mountains. nor indeed did st. francis accept it save as he accepted everything, as a temporary convenience rather than a personal possession; but he turned it into a sort of refuge for the eremitical rather than the monastic life; he retired there when he wished for a life of prayer and fasting which he did not ask even his closest friends to follow. this was alverno of the apennines, and upon its peak there rests for ever a dark cloud that has a rim or halo of glory.

what it was exactly that happened there may never be known. the matter has been, i believe, a subject of dispute among the most devout students of the saintly life as well as between such students and others of the more secular sort. it may be that st. francis never spoke to a soul on the subject; it would be highly characteristic, {151}and it is certain in any case that he said very little; i think he is only alleged to have spoken of it to one man. subject however to such truly sacred doubts, i will confess that to me personally this one solitary and indirect report that has come down to us reads very like the report of something real; of some of those things that are more real than what we call daily realities. even something as it were double and bewildering about the image seems to carry the impression of an experience shaking the senses; as does the passage in revelations about the supernatural creatures full of eyes. it would seem that st. francis beheld the heavens above him occupied by a vast winged being like a seraph spread out like a cross. there seems some mystery about whether the winged figure was itself crucified or in the posture of crucifixion, or whether it merely enclosed in its frame of wings some colossal crucifix. but it seems clear that there was some question of the former impression; for st. bonaventura distinctly says that st. francis doubted how a seraph could be crucified, since those awful and ancient principalities were without the infirmity of the passion. st. bonaventura suggests that the seeming contradiction may have meant that st. francis was to be crucified as a spirit since he could not be crucified as a man; but whatever the meaning of the vision, the general idea of it is very vivid {152}and overwhelming. st. francis saw above him, filling the whole heavens, some vast immemorial unthinkable power, ancient like the ancient of days, whose calm men had conceived under the forms of winged bulls or monstrous cherubim, and all that winged wonder was in pain like a wounded bird. this seraphic suffering, it is said, pierced his soul with a sword of grief and pity; it may be inferred that some sort of mounting agony accompanied the ecstasy. finally after some fashion the apocalypse faded from the sky and the agony within subsided; and silence and the natural air filled the morning twilight and settled slowly in the purple chasms and cleft abysses of the apennines.

the head of the solitary sank, amid all that relaxation and quiet in which time can drift by with the sense of something ended and complete; and as he stared downwards, he saw the marks of nails in his own hands.